, 2004). In the current report,

we describe the use of this method for the isolation and characterization of novel polyhydroxyalkanaote synthesis genes from a soil metagenomic library. Many bacteria found in heterogeneous and diverse soil habitats are known to accumulate polyhydroxyalkanaote. this website In several cases it has been demonstrated that the ability to store carbon as polyhydroxyalkanaote contributes to survival under fluctuating environmental conditions of the soil and rhizosphere (recently reviewed in Castro-Sowinski et al., 2010). Our methods should be useful for the isolation of additional novel polyhydroxyalkanaote synthesis genes from uncultivated bacteria inhabiting environments such as soil. This work continues our development of the Alphaproteobacteria as surrogate hosts for functional metagenomic studies (Wang et al., 2006) (Hao et al., 2010). Strains and plasmids are listed in Table 1. Luria–Bertani and yeast extract–mannitol (YM) medium supplemented

with appropriate antibiotics were used as described previously (Aneja et al., 2004). The metagenomic library was maintained as pooled Escherichia coli HB101 culture, stored long-term at −70 °C in the presence of 7% dimethyl sulphoxide. Nile red (Sigma-Aldrich, N3013, technical grade) added to agar media at a concentration of 0.5 μg mL−1 facilitated the visual identification of stained colonies containing polyhydroxyalkanaote accumulating cells (Spiekermann

et al., 1999). Sinorhizobium meliloti genetics (Glazebrook & Walker, 1991) and standard techniques for molecular biology Dasatinib were used. The metagenomic library was transferred to recipient S. meliloti cells by triparental conjugation, and screens for complementation of polyhydroxyalkanaote synthesis were performed by examination of transconjugant colonies for restoration of mucoid phenotype or Nile Red staining on YM agar (Aneja et al., 2004). Along with end sequencing of subcloned cosmid insert fragments, the EZ∷TN 〈KAN-2〉 insertion kit (Epicentre) was used to generate transposon mutations that facilitated sequencing using the recommended transposon-sequencing primers. Primer walking was used to close gaps when necessary, and trimming and assembly were performed manually. The Clomifene sequence was obtained at MOBIX (McMaster University) using an ABI 3100 Gene Analyzer instrument, and at the Institut für Mikrobiologie und Genetik, Universität Göttingen. Potential protein-coding sequences were identified using genemark.hmm (Lukashin & Borodovsky, 1998), and supported by blastx analysis (Altschul et al., 1997). The predicted ORFs were further analysed by blastp and blastn. For polyhydroxyalkanaote analysis 1-mL precultures were used to inoculate 200 mL YM broth in 500-mL Erlenmeyer flasks. Incubation was carried out at 30 °C on a shaker at 200 r.p.m. for 48 h. Cells were recovered by centrifugation at 5855 g for 15 min in a GSA rotor.

, 1996) buy AZD2281 in the presence and absence of IF1 overexpression. Overexpression of IF1 did not enhance the level of CAT protein synthesis by wild-type ribosomes (Table 1). To test whether the effects of increased IF1 as a multicopy suppressor were specific to U791 ribosomes, DH5α cells expressing pRNA122 ribosomes bearing a nucleotide substitution (A516 or G770) were transformed

with pKAN6 or pKAN6-IF1, and the resulting transformants were tested for their degree of resistance to chloramphenicol. These mutations were chosen because they have been shown to exhibit a protein synthesis ability as poor as that of pRNA122-U791 ribosomes (Lee et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2007). IF1 overexpression had no effect Veliparib on mutant ribosomes bearing a nonfunctional mutation in other regions of 16S rRNA, thus indicating that the effect of IF1 on ribosome function is not a general phenomenon (Table 1). A previous study demonstrated that pRNA122-U791

ribosomes have ribosomal subunit association defects (Song et al., 2007). For this reason, we measured the effects of IF1 overexpression on pRNA122-U791 ribosomes in terms of the formation of 70S ribosomes. Total ribosomes were purified from cells that expressed pRNA122-U791 ribosomes in the presence and absence of IF1 overexpression using a sucrose gradient, and we analyzed the ability of pRNA122-U791 ribosomes to form 70S ribosomes. Primer extension analysis revealed that 16S rRNA containing U791 was notably under-represented in the 70S ribosome peaks (∼19%) of the total ribosomes purified from cells harboring pRNA122-U791 and pKAN6A, as has been shown previously (Song et al., 2007), while the distribution of 16S rRNA containing U791 was increased up to ∼25% in the 70S ribosome peaks purified from cells harboring pRNA122-U791 and pKAN6-IF1 (Fig. 2a). To test whether the effect of IF1 overexpression on

the formation of 70S ribosomes is specific to MTMR9 pRNA122-U791 ribosomes, we measured the effects of IF1 overexpression on wild-type and U770 mutant 30S ribosomes in terms of their ability to form 70S ribosomes. To do this, we subcloned a C to T mutation at position 1192 in the 16S rRNA coding region of pRNA122, pRNA122-U791, and pRNA122-U770. This mutation (U1192) has been shown to have no effect on ribosome function and has therefore been used to assess the distribution of plasmid-derived ribosomes in the cell (Sigmund et al., 1984; Makosky & Dahlberg, 1987). Total ribosomes were purified and analyzed using primer extension analysis. IF1 overexpression had no significant effect on pRNA122 wild-type and pRNA122-U770 ribosomes, while we found that the subunit association increased only by pRNA122-U791U1192 ribosomes, suggesting that the IF1 effect is specific to pRNA122-U791 ribosomes (Fig. 2b).

The final review in this supplement examines the data concerning vaccine recommendations for international travelers, taking into account recommendations from the US ACIP and authorities in Canada and Europe, as well as specific destination country requirements. A. W.-S. serves on the Advisory Board for Novartis and on the Meningococcal Vaccine Initiative. She has received speakers’ honoraria and financial sponsorships to attend conferences from Novartis, GSK, and Sanofi-Pasteur. “
“Increased international travel raises the importance of accurate surveillance of travel-associated

gastroenteric pathogens to improve treatment and the investigation of cross-border outbreaks. This study found that 45% of Salmonella and 17% of Campylobacter infections in England were travel-associated, but only 29 and 3% of travel histories were accurately identified by national laboratory surveillance. More structured data collection Roxadustat concentration R428 clinical trial forms and staff training may be needed to address this. Campylobacter and Salmonella species are major causes of diarrheal disease in the UK

with 50,000 and 10,000 confirmed cases per year, respectively.1 Both pathogens can lead to serious complications with associated excess morbidity and mortality,2,3 particularly in vulnerable population groups. Increasing resistance to antibiotics4 and chronic Salmonella carriage3 are additional problems. Accurate travel information is necessary to monitor emerging subtypes or antibiotic resistance patterns, selleck compound to correctly interpret

output from national laboratory exceedance reporting tools5 (in order to direct further investigations into putative clusters) and to help identify and remove relevant exposures. It is also necessary for the surveillance and investigation of clusters in returning travelers and to distinguish these from infections acquired in the UK. Cases’ travel status is currently ascertained through laboratory surveillance, but the predictive value of this information has never been estimated. The aim of this study was to quantify the proportion of travel under-ascertainment for Salmonella and Campylobacter cases in the national laboratory surveillance system in England. In addition the proportion of foreign travel-associated salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis was estimated and characteristics of illness related to these pathogens described. We used data from the Coordinated Local Authority Sentinel Surveillance of Pathogens (CLASSP) study,6 a large, active population-based surveillance system in England. Detailed standardized questionnaires were administered to all the cases of laboratory-confirmed Campylobacter and non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in sentinel areas, and 11,523 questionnaires were returned from individuals with a recent history of campylobacteriosis and 2,393 from people with a recent history of salmonellosis (about 10 and 7% of all cases in England).

The final review in this supplement examines the data concerning vaccine recommendations for international travelers, taking into account recommendations from the US ACIP and authorities in Canada and Europe, as well as specific destination country requirements. A. W.-S. serves on the Advisory Board for Novartis and on the Meningococcal Vaccine Initiative. She has received speakers’ honoraria and financial sponsorships to attend conferences from Novartis, GSK, and Sanofi-Pasteur. “
“Increased international travel raises the importance of accurate surveillance of travel-associated

gastroenteric pathogens to improve treatment and the investigation of cross-border outbreaks. This study found that 45% of Salmonella and 17% of Campylobacter infections in England were travel-associated, but only 29 and 3% of travel histories were accurately identified by national laboratory surveillance. More structured data collection PI3K inhibitor OSI-744 manufacturer forms and staff training may be needed to address this. Campylobacter and Salmonella species are major causes of diarrheal disease in the UK

with 50,000 and 10,000 confirmed cases per year, respectively.1 Both pathogens can lead to serious complications with associated excess morbidity and mortality,2,3 particularly in vulnerable population groups. Increasing resistance to antibiotics4 and chronic Salmonella carriage3 are additional problems. Accurate travel information is necessary to monitor emerging subtypes or antibiotic resistance patterns, Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase to correctly interpret

output from national laboratory exceedance reporting tools5 (in order to direct further investigations into putative clusters) and to help identify and remove relevant exposures. It is also necessary for the surveillance and investigation of clusters in returning travelers and to distinguish these from infections acquired in the UK. Cases’ travel status is currently ascertained through laboratory surveillance, but the predictive value of this information has never been estimated. The aim of this study was to quantify the proportion of travel under-ascertainment for Salmonella and Campylobacter cases in the national laboratory surveillance system in England. In addition the proportion of foreign travel-associated salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis was estimated and characteristics of illness related to these pathogens described. We used data from the Coordinated Local Authority Sentinel Surveillance of Pathogens (CLASSP) study,6 a large, active population-based surveillance system in England. Detailed standardized questionnaires were administered to all the cases of laboratory-confirmed Campylobacter and non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in sentinel areas, and 11,523 questionnaires were returned from individuals with a recent history of campylobacteriosis and 2,393 from people with a recent history of salmonellosis (about 10 and 7% of all cases in England).

A total of 249 (54%) patients were hospitalized; for those the median length of hospitalization was 5 days. Ten patients (2%) were referred because of a recent history of being treated for malaria in an endemic area. The final diagnoses regarded as the main cause of fever, including potentially life-threatening illnesses, are presented in Table 2. An etiological or clinical diagnosis was established in 346 selleck kinase inhibitor (75%) cases. The discharge diagnosis differed from the working diagnosis in 193 (43%) cases. The final diagnosis was different from the working diagnosis in 256 (55%) and from the discharge

diagnosis in 115 (25%) cases. The data below describe the final diagnoses. The most common main groups of diagnosis were acute diarrheal disease (126/27%), systemic febrile illness (95/21%), and respiratory illness (69/15%). Campylobacter was the most common specific cause of acute diarrheal disease and the most common single specific diagnosis. Malaria was diagnosed in 20 patients, 8 of whom were VFRs. Plasmodium falciparum was the causative pathogen in 16 cases; in four of them the disease was complicated and required intensive care treatment. Blood cultures were obtained from 428 (93%) of the patients and were positive for bacteria in 21 (5%) of these (Salmonella species 5, Escherichia coli 3, Salmonella paratyphi Small Molecule Compound Library 3, Salmonella typhi

2, Staphylococcus aureus 2, Burkholderia pseudomallei 1, Klebsiella pneumoniae 1, Shigella sonnei 1, Streptococcus pyogenes Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) 1, Streptococcus viridians 1, Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1). Nasal swabs for influenza A and B antigen were taken from 47 patients (10% of all), including 20 of the 111 meeting the criteria of influenza-like illness (respiratory symptoms, fever >38.5°C); the test was found positive in 7 patients (15% of those tested). HIV test was taken from 174 patients and repeated in 17 patients. A new HIV diagnosis

was established in five patients (5/174, 3% of those tested). More than one specific diagnosis was established in 45 (10%) patients: 41 patients had two and 4 had three separate diagnoses. The most common group of additional diagnoses was acute diarrheal disease (20/49 diagnoses), followed by respiratory (9/49) and systemic febrile illness (6/49, including 2 Epstein-Barr, 1 dengue, 1 HIV, 1 Herpes simplex virus infection, and 1 viral meningitis), genitourinary (4/49), dermatologic (3/49), and non-diarrheal gastrointestinal disease (3/49), and noninfectious diagnoses (4/49). Patients returning from Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent had acute diarrheal disease more frequently (38/93, 41%) than travelers from other areas (88/369, 24%) (p = 0.002). Most of the malaria (18/20) and all rickettsiosis cases (6) came from Sub-Saharan Africa, and most dengue cases from Asia (9/14). Rare severe diseases acquired in Asia were diagnosed: two cases of melioidosis and one case each of leptospirosis, hepatitis E, and pulmonary histoplasmosis.

, 2000). In the current study, however, only the duration and gap deviants elicited prominent MMN-like responses, whereas the other deviant types

did not (see also Putkinen et al., 2012). Other studies have also failed to obtain MMNs to frequency (Gomes et al., 2000; Morr et al., 2002) and intensity (Sussman ALK inhibitor & Steinschneider, 2011) deviants in passive odd-ball setting even in children who were older than those participating in the current study [note, however, that in the study of Sussman & Steinschneider (2011) a frequency MMN was obtained]. Therefore, the MMN appears to be less robust in children than in adults and its maturational time-course might vary between different auditory features. Auditory experience is known to influence the MMN in childhood and therefore it was expected that the MMN amplitude would correlate with the overall score for musical activities at home. However, no such correlation was found. The evidence for experience-dependent plasticity on the MMN mainly comes from studies that, unlike the current one, centre on the influence of the language environment (e.g. Cheour et al., 2002) or the effects of intense formal musical training in school-aged children

on auditory discrimination (Chobert et al., 2011; Meyer et al., 2011; Virtala et al., 2012). The current study indicates tentatively that, in contrast to these types of auditory experiences, the MMN might not be sensitive to differences in the kinds of informal musical experience examined in the current study at least in 2–3-year-olds. As was the case with the MMN, the duration and gap deviants were also Selleckchem Regorafenib the only ones Vasopressin Receptor out of the five deviant types that elicited a P3a-like response. Unlike the MMN, however, these responses were correlated

with the overall musical activities at home score. Interestingly, contrasting results were obtained with regard to the P3as elicited by the deviant tones and novel sounds. Namely, the musical activities at home were associated with augmented P3a responses to the deviant tones but a reduced P3a to the novel sounds. At least in the current experimental setting, a P3a-like response to the deviant tones might reflect the sensitivity to fine variation in the auditory environment, whereas the novel-sound P3a might be related to distractibility by salient auditory changes. Evidence from various sources supports the intuitive idea that, in the sense just outlined, the P3a responses to subtle vs. pronounced auditory changes might reflect different aspects of attention allocation. Firstly, short-term auditory training has been found to enhance the P3a elicited by different types of subtle auditory changes (Atienza et al., 2004; Uther et al., 2006) and augmented P3as to difficult-to-detect deviants are seen in subjects with highly accurate auditory abilities such as musicians (e.g. Vuust et al., 2009).

Proportion of women who have commenced ART by beginning of week 24 of pregnancy. Proportion of women with a baseline HIV VL >30 000 RNA copies/mL selleck products plasma and who do not require treatment

for themselves commencing temporary HAART at the beginning of the second trimester (by beginning of 16 weeks’ gestation). Proportion of women presenting in labour/with ROM/requiring delivery without a documented HIV result having an urgent HIV test result documented and this reactive/positive result acted upon immediately with initiation of the interventions to PMTCT without waiting for further/formal serological confirmation. Proportion of women with HBV coinfection who have LFTs performed 2 weeks after commencing HAART to detect evidence of ARV hepatotoxicity or IRIS. Proportion of women with HCV coinfection who have LFTs performed 2 weeks after commencing HAART to detect evidence of ARV hepatotoxicity or IRIS. Proportion of women

who have invasive prenatal diagnostic testing performed before their HIV status is known. Proportion of emergency CS performed and their indication. Proportion of infants <72 h old, born to untreated HIV-positive mothers, initiating three-drug therapy within 2 h of delivery. Proportion of routine neonatal PEP commenced within 4 h of delivery. Proportion of infants born to HIV-positive mothers who have HIV antibody testing for seroreversion performed at age 15–24 months. One of Everolimus the major successes in the management of HIV-positive patients has been the PMTCT of HIV-1. With the widespread implementation of routine antenatal screening Nintedanib in vitro for HIV-1, transmission of HIV-1 from mother to child is now a rare occurrence in the UK. Despite few recent RCTs regarding the use of ART in pregnancy or obstetric intervention, practice continues to evolve. This is largely informed by observational data, theoretical considerations and expert

opinion. At the outset, the aim of the Writing Group was to make these guidelines as clinically relevant and as practical as possible. The Writing Group drew up a list of questions reflecting day-to-day practice and queries. It was acknowledged that the level of evidence for many of these topics was poor but recognized that there was a need to provide guidance. These guidelines have expanded on all areas relevant to the clinical care of HIV-positive pregnant women. The guidelines are intended to inform and aid healthcare workers in the management of pregnant women with HIV. They are not intended to be prescriptive or restrictive and it is recognized that situations will arise where the optimum management may deviate from these recommendations and new data will emerge to better inform practice. A particular focus has been obstetric management. An increasing number of women are aiming for and achieving a vaginal delivery but the rate of emergency CSs has increased.

“
“Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) is an important pathogen that can cause systemic infections in a broad spectrum of mammals and birds. To date, commercial vaccines click here against ExPEC infections in pigs are rare and antibiotic resistance has become a serious clinical problem. Identification of protective

antigens is helpful for developing potentially effective vaccines. In this study, two outer membrane porins, OmpC and OmpF, of porcine ExPEC were cloned and expressed to investigate their immunogenicity. Intraperitoneal immunization of mice with the purified recombinant proteins OmpC and OmpF stimulated strong immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody responses. Both IgG1 and IgG2a subclasses were induced, with a predominance of IgG1 production. After challenge with 2.5 × 107 CFU (5 × LD50) of the highly virulent ExPEC strain PCN033, 62.5% and 87.5% protection was observed in mice immunized with OmpC and OmpF, respectively. In addition,

both anti-OmpC and anti-OmpF sera can mediate complement-dependent opsonophagocytosis. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the ompC gene was ubiquitously present in all E. coli strains, whereas the ompF gene was mutated in certain strains. Furthermore, the selection analysis indicated that gene ompC may be subject to strong immune pressure. Our results demonstrated that OmpC is a promising vaccine target against ExPEC infections in swine. Pathogenic Escherichia coli is an important zoonotic etiological agent that can infect a broad spectrum of mammals and birds. Pathogenic E. coli Doramapimod datasheet can be divided into two classes: intestinal and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) strains (Russo & Johnson, 2000). ExPEC strains possess certain specific virulence traits that enable them to invade

and colonize extraintestinal sites and cause a wide range of infections, such as urinary tract infections, meningitis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, and surgical site infections (Orskov & Orskov, 1985). Recent reports show that ExPEC has been isolated frequently from clinical samples in the pig industry in China (Tan et al., 2012). However, to date, the crotamiton damage caused by ExPEC infections in swine has not been paid sufficient attention. The two common approaches for prevention and therapy of bacterial diseases are vaccination and antibiotic therapy. Our recent study has demonstrated that antibiotic resistance is ubiquitously present in the porcine ExPEC strains isolated in China; 95.2% of which carried resistance to at least five antibiotics, and 60.3% were resistant to > 10 antimicrobials (Tang et al., 2011). Therefore, antibiotic treatment against ExPEC infections in pigs is limited. In addition, Tan et al. (2012) have reported that ExPEC infections are epidemic in China and have become a potential public health threat. It is desirable to find potential vaccine candidates to prevent this serious swine disease.

018). Our data show an increased risk of vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency in patients with detectable VL and a Black ethnic background. Among cART regimens, boosted PI monotherapy was associated with a lower risk of vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency.

The more favourable vitamin Everolimus price D status in former IDUs was probably attributable to a higher frequency of outdoor jobs in this group of patients. “
“With the advent of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART), perinatally HIV-infected children are surviving into adolescence and beyond. However, drug resistance mutations (DRMs) compromise viral control, affecting the long-term effectiveness of ART. The aims of this study were to detect and identify DRMs in a HIV-1 infected paediatric cohort. Paired plasma and dried blood spots (DBSs) specimens were obtained from HIV-1 perinatally infected patients attending selleck kinase inhibitor the Jacobi Medical Center, New York, USA. Clinical, virological and immunological data for these patients were analysed. HIV-1 pol sequences were generated from samples to identify DRMs according to the International AIDS Society (IAS) 2011 list. Forty-seven perinatally infected patients were selected, with a median age of 17.7 years, of whom 97.4% were carrying subtype B. They

had a mean viral load of 3143 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL and a mean CD4 count of 486 cells/μL at the time of sampling. Nineteen patients (40.4%) had achieved undetectable viraemia (< 50 copies/mL) and 40.5% had a CD4 count of > 500 cells/μL. Most of the patients (97.9%) had received cART, including protease inhibitor (PI)-based regimens in 59.6% of cases. The DRM prevalence was 54.1, 27.6 and 27.0% for nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), PIs and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), respectively. Almost two-thirds (64.9%) of the patients harboured DRMs to at least one drug class and 5.4% were triple resistant. The mean nucleotide similarity between plasma and DBS sequences was 97.9%. Identical DRM profiles were present in 60%

of plasma−DBS paired sequences. A total of 30 DRMs were detected in plasma and 26 in DBSs, with 23 present in both. Although more perinatally HIV-1-infected children are reaching adulthood as a result of advances Orotic acid in cART, our study cohort presented a high prevalence of resistant viruses, especially viruses resistant to NRTIs. DBS specimens can be used for DRM detection. “
“We recommend adherence and potential barriers to it are assessed and discussed with the patient whenever ART is prescribed or dispensed (GPP). We recommend adherence support should address both perceptual barriers (e.g. beliefs and preferences) and/or practical barriers (e.g. limitations in capacity and resources) to adherence (GPP). Record in patient’s notes of discussion and assessment of adherence and potential barriers to, before starting a new ART regimen and while on ART. Record in patient’s notes of provision or offer of adherence support.

This research was supported by National Institutes of Health grant A1072710 (E.I.S.). “
“Periplasmic cyclic β-1,2-glucans play a crucial role in symbiosis as well as in hypo-osmotic adaptation for rhizobia. These glucans are modified in many species by anionic substituents such as glycerophosphoryl and succinyl ones, but their role remains to be examined. In this work, the cgmA homolog is shown to be responsible for

glycerophosphorylation of cyclic β-1,2-glucans in Mesorhizobium loti. The mutation in cgmA converted most anionic glucans into neutral ones, leaving a small amount of succinylated ones. An additional mutation in opgC, which selleck chemical encodes a succinyltransferase homolog, abolished the residual succinyl substituents in the cgmA-mutant background. The double mutant in cgmA and opgC did not show any significant phenotypic differences from the wild type during both vegetative growth and symbiosis. It is concluded that the Trichostatin A anionic substituents make a minor contribution, if any, to the effectiveness of cyclic β-1,2-glucans in M. loti. Low-molecular-weight glucans are widely present in considerable amounts in the periplasm of Proteobacteria, although their backbone organizations are diverse among many bacterial families (Breedveld & Miller, 1994; Kennedy, 1996; Bohin, 2000). A subgroup of Alphaproteobacteria, including genera Agrobacterium, Brucella, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium, and Sinorhizobium, possess β-1,2-linked

cyclic glucans consisting of 17–28 glucose residues. The ndvB/chvB/cgs and ndvA/chvA/cgt genes encode their synthase and exporter, respectively. Escherichia coli and some other Gammaproteobacteria have β-1,2-linked

linear glucans with branches connected by β-1,6-linkages, called membrane-derived oligosaccharides. These periplasmic glucans are commonly known to act as osmoprotectants: their presence makes a significant contribution to the maintenance of osmolarity of the periplasm (Kennedy, 1996). Sinorhizobium and Agrobacterium mutants in ndvB/chvB or ndvA/chvA are defective in growth and motility under low-osmolarity conditions (Cangelosi et al., 1990; Dylan et al., 1990a). Moreover, in the case of pathogenic or symbiotic bacteria, periplasmic glucans are crucial for the interaction with their eukaryotic PIK-5 hosts (Bohin, 2000; Mithöfer, 2002). Some residues of periplasmic glucans are modified by nonglycosidic substituents in many, but not all, bacteria; for example, phosphoglycerol for Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Sinorhizobium fredii (Miller et al., 1987; Crespo-Rivas et al., 2009); succinic acid for Brucella abortus (Roset et al., 2006); both of these for Sinorhizobium meliloti and Mesorhizobium loti (Miller et al., 1988; Kawaharada et al., 2008); and phosphoglycerol, phosphoethanolamine, and succinic acid for E. coli (van Golde et al., 1973; Kennedy et al., 1976). Phosphoglycerol and succinyl moieties confer a negative charge on glucan molecules, producing anionic fractions.