34 However, at. least one binding protein, ax-acid glycoprotein (A AG), may be lower in women35-37 (but see also reference 38) and is decreased by estradiol,35,39 an effect, which should increase the proportion of free drug.34,40 Drugs bound by AAG include amitriptyline, chlorpromazine, desipramine, imipramine, doxepin, nortriptyline, olanzepine, reboxetine, thioridazine, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and triazolam.41 Disagreement regarding the existence of a sex difference in circulating AAG levels could be a result, of the small numbers of subjects studied and the failure to control for menopause or for menstrual cycle phase. However, comparable free (active) levels of probe drugs have been observed among individuals with

different levels of AAG, suggesting that these differences may have minimal clinical impact.42-44 Volume of distribution As with absorption and protein binding, the volume

of distribution will be determined by both Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical drug-dependent and drug-independent factors, the former including the pK a and lipophilicity of the drug, and the latter including vascular and tissue volumes and the proportion of body fat. Women have an increased fat-to-lean body mass ratio45-47 and hence show a greater distribution of fat-soluble drugs48 (eg, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical diazepam). Once again, the clinical impact of the dimorphism in fat content is far from easy to predict. While blood levels of a. drug may decrease due to increased volume of distribution, the half-life of the drug may be prolonged due to increased retention in body fat, which effectively serves as a drug reservoir. Additionally, the proportion of body fat tends to increase with age and increases disproportionately (faster and greater) in women, suggesting that some sex-related differences in drug distribution would Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical increase with age. Sex differences in body weight also need to be considered when conducting studies on sex differences in pharmacokinetics. Since males tend to weigh more than

females and have larger bodies, some Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical apparent sex differences might, actually be due to size differences. This is Enzalutamide solubility dmso especially relevant for studies that, administer the same dose of a drug to all subjects. Many past, pharmacokinetic studies failed to control for body weight; consequently, reported sex differences must be examined critically, as they may be artifactual. Metabolism As the oxidation and reduction of most drugs is carried out. by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, sexual enough dimorphisms in the activities (or levels) of these enzymes could underlie sexual dimorphisms in the plasma levels of drugs achieved following a given dose of medication. Five isozymes from three families of CYP enzymes are the most widely studied and the most relevant for the metabolism of drugs in the psychiatric armamentarium: CYP3A4, CYP2D6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP1 A2. The by now familiar confounds loom large in the assessment, of the effects of sex on the activities of these enzymes.