In humans, it is known that Levodopa administration can increase plasticity in the motor cortex (Kuo et al., 2008), while conversely plasticity in motor cortex is diminished in Parkinson’s patients (Ueki et al., 2006). Behavioral studies have also shown that Levodopa can modulate both motor learning (Flöel et al., 2005, 2008; Rösser et al., 2008) and acquisition of an artificial language (de Vries et al., 2010). In a music training context, the produced sounds would provide selleck screening library direct feedback about accuracy of performance, which might be in part mediated through dopaminergic signals. While this has not yet been shown experimentally, the reward value of the immediate feedback might be important for the plastic effects

that are observed due to training. Clearly this is an area ripe for more specific investigation. Music also has some reward value beyond the pleasurable sounds and direct feedback—it also has an important role in social interactions, both in contexts of group listening and music making. While the effects of such interactions during Verteporfin music making have not been investigated to our knowledge, the role of social influences and well-being

on brain plasticity has been shown in other contexts (for a recent review, see Davidson and McEwen, 2012). Important aspects in the context of music and learning could include pupil-teacher interactions and imitation learning, social reward and influences on self-perception, but also negative influences like stress in professional situations and performance anxiety. Plastic changes can occur over the entire life-span, but early musical training seems to be particularly effective (Penhune, 2011), as is also true for other domains of learning, such as speech (Kuhl, 2010), development of absolute pitch ability (Baharloo et al., 1998; Zatorre, 2003), or the efficacy of cochlear implants (Nicholas and Geers, 2007). In turn, this phenomenon Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mirrors one seen in single-unit neurophysiology as mentioned earlier (de Villers-Sidani et al.,

2007, 2008). Several musical training studies have found that long-term effects are modulated by the age at which the training began (Figure 4). Behaviorally, early musical training results in better visuomotor and auditory-motor synchrony (Pantev et al., 1998; Schlaug et al., 1995), even when controlling for amount of training (Bailey and Penhune, 2010; Watanabe et al., 2007). Anatomical changes in keeping with the idea of greater potential for plasticity as a function of age have also been described in the white-matter organization of the descending motor tracts in pianists (Bengtsson et al., 2005), in morphological features of the motor cortex (Amunts et al., 1997), and in the size of the anterior corpus callosum (Schlaug et al., 1995). Functionally, earlier age of training commencement is also associated with greater representation of the fingers of the left hand of string players (Elbert et al.