Compounding the decrease in large predatory fish abundance, another side-effect of trophic cascades is the prevention of successful recruitment of high level species. Fish body size is generally correlated with trophic level. As such, piscivorous fishes tend to be zooplanktivorous as larvae [1] and [4]. This lower trophic level of young fish would place them in direct competition with the now abundant small pelagic species. In fact, these larval fish may also become the prey of the lower trophic level pelagic fishes. Trophic cascades have been documented in ecosystems around the world, due to the prevalent decline in biomass of large

predatory fishes. In a 2005 study, Myers and Worm examined the exploitation and ecological extinction of predatory fishes worldwide. this website Their study documented an average decline in predatory fish abundance to 10% of its pre-exploitation level, with sensitive species such as sharks closer to 1% of pre-exploitation levels. This decline resulted in the ecological extinction of most species examined. Indeed, the authors commented on the prevalence of documented trophic cascades created due to predatory fish decline associated with overexploitation.

One documented trophic cascade in the Bohai Sea attributed to overexploitation of top predators resulted in a 300% increase in phytoplankton [32]. One researcher went so far to say that “fisheries extirpate trophic Vorinostat cell line levels” [33]. Under the scenario of fishing down, this certainly appears true. A primary characteristic of fishing through the food web is an initial high-trophic level fishery followed by the sequential addition of lower-level stocks into the fishery. This strategy would suggest that fishing pressure of upper-level species did not result in the collapse of apex predators. Since this strategy would not necessarily result in an ecological extinction of high-trophic level species, a trophic cascade would be less likely, although

still a significant concern. Instead, the addition of multiple trophic levels to the fishery would result in a more comprehensive attack on trophic interactions within the ecosystem. In addition Interleukin-2 receptor to risking ecological extinction of top predators and subsequent trophic cascades, fishing at multiple trophic levels could allow collapse of lower-trophic level species. In a 2011 study, Pinsky et al., caution that small pelagic fishes are highly catchable and are therefore very susceptible to overfishing. It is generally overlooked, however, as small pelagic species tend to be R-selected, having increased fecundity, decreased time to maturity, and low parental investment. Because of these life-history characteristics, scientists have generally assumed that these species will be able to sustain high fishing yields due to a shorter generation time. Pinsky et al.