Because endocrine demands frequently change, the pituitary has to flexibly remodel its hormone-producing cell compartment. One mechanism of pituitary plasticity may rely on the generation of new hormonal cells from resident stem/progenitor cells. Existence of such ‘master’ cells in the pituitary has in the past repeatedly been postulated. Only recently, however, very plausible candidates have been identified that express stem cell-associated markers and signalling factors, and display the stem/progenitor cell characteristics

of multipotency, efflux capacity (side population phenotype) and niche-like organization. In other adult tissues, stem cells recapitulate the embryonic developmental path on their course towards selleckchem mature specialized

cells. Interestingly, the pituitary stem/progenitor cell compartment shows prominent expression Copanlisib ic50 of transcriptional regulators and signalling factors that play a pivotal role during pituitary embryogenesis. This review summarizes the recent progress in pituitary stem/progenitor cell identification, highlights their potential embryonic phenotype, sketches a tentative stem/progenitor cell model, and discusses further research and challenges. Recognizing and scrutinizing the pituitary stem/progenitor cells as embryonic players in the adult gland may profoundly impact on our still poor understanding of the mechanisms underlying pituitary cell turnover and plasticity. “
“A critical step in synaptic development is the Idoxuridine differentiation of presynaptic and postsynaptic compartments. This complex process is regulated by a variety of secreted factors that serve as synaptic organizers. Specifically, fibroblast growth factors, Wnts, neurotrophic factors and various other intercellular signaling molecules are proposed to regulate presynaptic and/or postsynaptic differentiation. Many of these factors appear to function at both the neuromuscular junction and in

the central nervous system, although the specific function of the molecules differs between the two. Here we review secreted molecules that organize the synaptic compartments and discuss how these molecules shape synaptic development, focusing on mammalian in vivo systems. Their critical role in shaping a functional neural circuit is underscored by their possible link to a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders both in animal models and by mutations identified in human patients. “
“Most biological effects of nitric oxide (NO) in the brain are mediated by guanylyl cyclase-coupled NO receptors, whose activation results in increased intracellular cGMP levels. Apart from protein kinase activation little is known about subsequent cGMP signal transduction. In optic nerve axons, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-modulated cation (HCN) channels, which bind cGMP or cAMP directly, were recently suggested to be a target. The aim here was to test this possibility more directly.