, 1989) and potassium channels ( Liman et al., 1991 and Papazian et al., 1991), leading to massive shifts in the voltage dependence of gating. Case closed? Well not quite. These studies also found that substitutions of Trichostatin A arginine with lysine produced similar shifts, despite preserving the charge. Moreover, so did hydrophobic for hydrophobic mutations in the residues between the arginines ( Lopez et al., 1991). Clearly, another approach was needed to test the contribution of

the arginines to gating charge. If only one could measure the amount of gating charge per channel directly, determine whether S4 is really a transmembrane segment, and, if so, see whether it moves in and out through the membrane. In 1996, two groups measured the total gating charge in a cell expressing wild-type or arginine-neutralized

potassium channels and divided the value by the number of channels on the cell membrane determined using either a radio-labeled blocking toxin or noise analysis (Aggarwal and MacKinnon, 1996 and Seoh et al., 1996). The results FRAX597 datasheet closely agreed: each of the four subunits of the channel had three to four gating charges, corresponding to the first four arginines of S4. At about the same time, cysteine accessibility analysis in both KVs and NaVs showed that S4 does indeed span the membrane and that it moves outward with membrane depolarization by an amount that displaces the same first four arginines through a narrow passage, thereby accounting for the

transfer of about three charges per subunit (Larsson GPX6 et al., 1996, Yang et al., 1996 and Yang and Horn, 1995). The agreement between the studies was remarkable. But one was left hankering for a real-time measure of S4 motion. Voltage-clamp fluorometry made this possible, showing that the voltage dependence and kinetics of S4 displacement precisely match the displacement of gating charge (Cha and Bezanilla, 1997, Larsson et al., 1996, Mannuzzu et al., 1996, Yang et al., 1996 and Yang and Horn, 1995). One still had some explaining to do. How does one accommodate charged arginines in a hydrophobic membrane? Conserved negatively charged residues in the S2 and S3 membrane segments were shown to electrostatically interact with S4 arginines (Papazian et al., 1995) and these could accommodate the two arginines at a time that entered the inaccessible pathway in the span of the membrane (Baker et al., 1998). Moreover, evidence was obtained that suggested that S4 does actually turn when it moves outward (Cha and Bezanilla, 1997 and Glauner et al., 1999), supporting the helical screw model.