PCR was carried with template cry2Ab and In-fusion™ primers. cry2Ab insert was column purified, and concentration was determined. The pET30b+ vector (Novagen) was digested using XhoI and NdeI. Linearized vector was gel extracted, and concentration was measured. selleck chemicals Vector was ethanol precipitated and was resuspended in water, 5× In-fusion reaction buffer, BSA, cry2Ab and In-fusion enzyme. Reaction mix was

incubated at 37 °C for 30 min and subsequently incubated at 50 °C for an additional 15 min. A portion of incubated mix was transformed into stellar competent cells (Clontech). DNA was purified from various colonies, and cry2Ab-pET30b+ plasmid DNA sequence was confirmed. Plasmid Map Enhancer for Windows 95 version was utilized to generate cry2Ab-pET30b+ plasmid map (not shown). Cry2Aa was used as a positive Panobinostat nmr control. The source of the cry2Aa gene is described elsewhere (Liang & Dean, 1994). Nine primers (Table 1) were designed to create single-residue, D block mutants (Sigma). PCR analysis was carried out using KOD polymerase (Novabiochem). Site-directed mutagenesis was performed on cry2Ab-pET30b+ recombinant plasmid (Sadeghi et al., 2010). Cry2Ab wild type and mutants were transformed into DH5α Escherichia coli cells. Samples were grown in 5 mL of Luria

broth (LB) supplemented with 30 μg mL−1 of kanamycin overnight (Lin et al., 2008). DNA was purified using Qiagen miniprep kit and sequences were confirmed for each sample. Cry2Ab wild type and mutants were transformed into BL21 Roseetta 2 (DE3) cells and selected for kanamycin and chloramphenicol resistance. LB (5 mL), supplemented with 30 μg mL−1 of kanamycin plus chloramphenicol, was inoculated with Cry2Ab wild type or respective mutant and grown at 37 °C overnight (O/N). Five millilitres of inoculum were added to 500 mL of 2xYT supplemented with 30 μg mL−1 of kanamycin and grown at 37 °C to OD600 nm ranging from 0.5 to 0.7. Culture was induced with 0.1 mM isopropyl-β-D-thio-galactoside (IPTG) at 25 °C O/N

much (Li et al., 2011). IPTG-induced bacterial cells were centrifuged (9820 g) at 4 °C. Harvested cells were resuspended in 50 mL of 50 mM Tris bruffer, pH 8. Cells were sonicated at room temperature for 2 min (10 s pulse on : 10 s pulse off ). The final pellet was resuspended in minimal crystal wash II. Protein samples were solubilized for 2 h in 50 mM Na2CO3, pH 10.5. Protoxin samples were separated by 10% SDS-PAGE and stained using Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250. Densitometric scanning (Personal densitometer SI) was employed to scan Coomassie-stained gel for quantification (Fig. 2). Standard curve was generated by ion-exchange purified protein ranging in concentration from 0 to 40 μg and corresponding volume bands analysed by imagequant.

Our results show that a hierarchical distributed network is synchronized between individuals during the processing of extended musical sequences, and provide new insight

into the temporal integration of complex and biologically salient auditory sequences. Music is a cultural universal and a rich part of the human experience. Brain imaging studies have identified an array of structures that underlie critical components of music, including pitch (Zatorre et al., 1994; Patel & Balaban, 2001), harmony (Janata et al., 2002; Passynkova et al., 2005), rhythm (Snyder & Large, 2005; Grahn & Rowe, 2009), timbre (Menon et al., 2002; Deike et al., 2004) and musical syntax (Levitin & Menon, 2005; Abrams et al., 2011; Oechslin et al., 2012). A drawback of probing neural substrates of selleck chemicals llc individual musical features is that artificially BTK inhibitor library constructed laboratory stimuli do not represent music as it is commonly heard, limiting the ecological validity of such studies. Furthermore, this componential approach fails to tap into one of the most important aspects of listeners’ musicality – the ability to integrate components of musical information over extended time periods (on the order of minutes)

into a coherent perceptual gestalt (Leaver et al., 2009). Examining the synchronization of brain responses across listeners constitutes a novel approach for exploring neural substrates of musical information processing. Inter-subject synchronization (ISS) using functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) detects common stimulus-driven brain structures by calculating voxel-wise correlations in fMRI activity over time between subjects (Hasson et al., 2004). The theoretical basis for using this approach is that brain structures that are consistently synchronized across subjects during an extended stimulus constitute core brain regions responsible for tracking structural elements of that stimulus over time (Hasson et al., 2010). ISS represents a fundamentally different approach, and provides advantages, relative to conventional fMRI methods Cediranib (AZD2171) (Wilson et al., 2008; see Fig. S1). ISS allows us to examine cognitive processes that require the integration of information over extended time periods; this is critical for the study of music in which the structure of musical elements is manifested over time. Furthermore, ISS does not rely on a priori assumptions about specific stimulus events or subtraction paradigms that require comparison of discrete perceptual or cognitive events. Our goal was to examine shared neural representations underlying the processing of natural musical stimuli (‘Natural Music’; Fig. 1). We used ISS to identify brain regions that showed synchronized activity across individuals in response to music.

We found that an agonist for group II metabotropic Ivacaftor chemical structure glutamate receptors (mGluR2/mGluR3), DCG-IV [(2S,1′R,2′R,3′R)-2-(2,3-dicarboxycyclopropyl)glycine], suppressed, whereas the mGluR2/mGluR3 antagonist LY341495 [(αS)-α-amino-α-[(1S,2S)-2-carboxycyclopropyl]-9H-xanthine-9-propanoic acid] enhanced dendrodendritic inhibition. Genetic ablation of mGluR2 markedly impaired the effects of DCG-IV and LY341495 on dendrodendritic inhibition. DCG-IV reduced both the frequency and the amplitude of spontaneous miniature excitatory

postsynaptic currents recorded from granule cells. Additionally, DCG-IV inhibited high-voltage-activated calcium currents in both mitral and granule cells. These results suggest that mGluR2 reduces dendrodendritic inhibition by inhibiting synaptic transmission between mitral cells and granule cells in the

Dapagliflozin research buy AOB. “
“Social isolation (SI) rearing, a model of early life stress, results in profound behavioral alterations, including increased anxiety-like behavior, impaired sensorimotor gating and increased self-administration of addictive substances. These changes are accompanied by alterations in mesolimbic dopamine function, such as increased dopamine and metabolite tissue content, increased dopamine responses to cues and psychostimulants, and increased dopamine neuron burst firing. Using voltammetric techniques, we examined the effects of SI rearing on dopamine transporter activity, vesicular release and dopamine D2-type autoreceptor activity in the nucleus accumbens core. Long–Evans rats were housed in group (GH; 4/cage) or SI (1/cage) conditions from weaning into early adulthood [postnatal day (PD) 28–77]. After this initial housing period, rats were assessed on the elevated plus-maze for an anxiety-like phenotype, and then slice voltammetry experiments were performed. To study the enduring effects of SI rearing on anxiety-like behavior and dopamine terminal function, another cohort of similarly reared rats was isolated for an

additional 4 months (until PD 174) and then tested. Our findings demonstrate that SI rearing results in lasting increases in anxiety-like behavior, dopamine release and dopamine transporter activity, but not D2 activity. Interestingly, GH-reared rats that were isolated Chloroambucil as adults did not develop the anxiety-like behavior or dopamine changes seen in SI-reared rats. Together, our data suggest that early life stress results in an anxiety-like phenotype, with lasting increases in dopamine terminal function. “
“Subthalamic nucleus (STN) modulation is currently the gold standard in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD) cases refractory to medication. Cell transplantation is a tissue-restorative approach and is a promising strategy in the treatment of PD. One of the obstacles to overcome in cell therapy is the poor dopaminergic cell survival.

An enhanced muscle multiple innervation was found in running rats that was fully reversed to control values blocking Trk receptors or interrupting the running activity. An increase in muscle multiple innervation was also found in sedentary rats treated with a selective TrkB receptor agonist. The expression of TrkB receptors by intramuscular axons was demonstrated, and increased muscle expression

of BDNF was found in running animals. The increase in muscle multiple innervation was consistent with the faster muscle re-innervation that we found in running animals. We conclude that, when regenerating axons contact muscle cells, muscle activity progressively increases modulating BDNF and possibly other growth factors, which in turn, acting via Trk receptors, induce axon sprouting to re-innervate skeletal muscle. “
“The neuronal Per-Arnt-Sim domain protein 4 (Npas4) is an important transcriptional regulator Selleck ABT-888 of synaptic plasticity and cognition. The present study

characterises the in vivo neuroanatomical expression pattern of the Npas4 protein in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia. Animals were subjected to unilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion for 2 h, after which the spatiotemporal and neuronal profiles of Npas4 protein expression were analysed by immunohistochemistry at different time points post-reperfusion. Focal cerebral ischemia induced an early, transient and robust upregulation of Npas4 in a brain region-dependent manner involving see more predominantly principal neurons. Interestingly, we observed a unique differential induction of Npas4 protein expression in corticolimbic regions of the rat brain that are critically linked to cognition and emotion. These findings suggest that stroke-induced Npas4 upregulation may be involved in a transcriptional

regulatory program within the corticolimbic circuitry following an ischemic insult. “
“Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia An association of the detrimental Florfenicol effect of monocular deprivation on binocular vision with reduced reliability of neuronal responses in the primary visual cortex has been shown on randomly presented binocular stimuli [V. Vorobyov et al. (2007) Eur J Neurosci. 26(12), 3553–3563]. To examine this effect on biologically relevant signals, binocular gratings of varying relative phase disparity were presented in sequential order, simulating motion, to 55 cats with various types of daily visual experience. During sequential stimulation, the proportions of ‘unstable’ cells (with phase differences exceeding 22.5 ° between peak binocular responses in two consecutive trials) were similar in cats with exclusively binocular experience and with short periods of daily monocular vision (≤ 3.25 h), in mixed binocular–monocular conditions.

Fissures can be reliably examined with LF and by visual inspection on school premises if certain special arrangements are made. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2011 Aim.  To assess the relation between type of traumatic injury and use of pacifier at the time of a fall accident in 0- to 2-year olds. Material and methods.  PLX4032 clinical trial The study draws on data from the database on traumatic dental injuries at the Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Copenhagen University Hospital. Results.  The study includes 1125

patients ≤2 years of age, representing a total of 1886 injuries. A total of 176 patients had fallen while using a pacifier, whereas 949 children suffered a fall without using a pacifier. In the pacifier group, 11.9% had crown fractures compared with 20.0% of children who had fallen without a pacifier (P = 0.012). Tooth displacement (lateral luxation, extrusion or avulsion) was relatively more frequent in children falling with a pacifier compared to children falling without a pacifier (64.8%vs 54.8%; P = 0.014).

Furthermore, soft tissue injury was less frequent among the former (28.4%vs 38.3%; P = 0.013). Conclusions.  Injuries occurring CDK inhibitor while using a pacifier tend to be tooth displacement rather than fractures. This is in accordance with the theoretical consideration that a blunt impact tends to favour displacement, whereas a sharp impact tends to favour fractures of the hard dental tissues. Resveratrol “
“Early childhood caries (ECC) is a multifactorial disease resulting mainly from a time-specific interaction of micro-organisms with sugars on a tooth surface. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship of dietary intake, as measured by the Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) to ECC. Cross-sectional analytical study. Sixty preschool children were equally divided into three groups according to their caries experience [Group 1: caries-free children, group 2: children with ECC, group 3: children with severe early childhood caries (S-ECC)]. The decayed (non-cavitated or cavitated), missing (due to caries) and filled tooth surfaces (dmfs) score was determined

through visual dental examination for each child. Questionnaires were collected recording the demographic characteristics of the families as well as 24-h food recall forms capturing the dietary intake of the children during the previous day. Accordingly, the HEI-2005 score was calculated for each child. The caries experience of the children in this study was significantly associated with their age. Caries-free children showed significantly higher ‘Whole fruit’, ‘Milk’, ‘Sodium’ and total HEI-2005 scores. The study findings illustrate the prominent protective role played by healthful dietary practices against dental caries in preschool children. “
“Welcome to Volume 24 of the International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry. In 2013, the Journal has received 578 manuscripts from 57 countries.

M. Tsankova et al. (2006)Nat. Neurosci., 9, 519–525], but did not affect histone deacetylase 9. Exercise elevated the phosphorylated forms of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and cAMP response element binding protein, implicated in the pathways by which neural activity influences the epigenetic regulation of gene transcription, i.e. Bdnf. These results showing the influence of exercise on the remodeling of chromatin containing the Bdnf gene emphasize the importance of exercise on the control of gene transcription in the context of brain function and plasticity. Reported information about the impact of a behavior, inherently involved in the daily human routine, on the epigenome opens exciting new directions and therapeutic

opportunities in the war against neurological and psychiatric disorders. “
“Major

depressive disorder is a chronic disabling disease, often triggered and exacerbated by stressors of a social nature. Hippocampal Alpelisib order volume reductions have been reported in depressed patients. In support of the neurogenesis theory of depression, in several stress-based animal models of depression, adult hippocampal neurogenesis was reduced and subsequently rescued by parallel antidepressant treatment. Here, we investigated whether repeated social defeat and subsequent individual housing for 3 months induces long-lasting changes in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in rats, and whether these can be normalized by late antidepressant treatment, as would match human depression. Neurogenesis was analysed by stereological quantification of the number of immature doublecortin (DCX)-immunopositive cells, in particular young (class I) and more mature CP 868596 (class II) DCX+ cells, to distinguish differential effects of stress or drug treatment on these subpopulations. Using this social defeat paradigm, the total DCX+ cell number was significantly reduced. This was most profound for older (class II) DCX+ cells with Ribonucleotide reductase long apical dendrites, whereas younger, class I cells remained unaffected. Treatment with the broad-acting tricyclic antidepressant imipramine, only during the last 3 weeks of the 3-month period after social defeat,

completely restored the reduction in neurogenesis by increasing both class I and II DCX+ cell populations. We conclude that despite the lack of elevated corticosterone plasma levels, neurogenesis is affected in a lasting manner by a decline in a distinct neuronal population of more mature newborn cells. Thus, the neurogenic deficit induced by this social defeat paradigm is long-lasting, but can still be normalized by late imipramine treatment. “
“In the rodent nucleus accumbens (NAc), cocaine elevates levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Conversely, BDNF can augment cocaine-related behavioral responses. The latter could reflect enhancement of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) transmission, because AMPARs in the NAc mediate some cocaine-induced behaviors.

This indicates that a classifier trained only on pictures of separately presented faces and places may not be the most optimal way of decoding object-based visual attention. Concluding, we have shown that real-time fMRI allows for online prediction of attention to objects belonging to different object categories. Prediction is based on distributed patterns of activity in multiple brain regions. The outlined methodology not only allows us to probe object-based attention in an online setting see more but also illustrates the potential to develop BCIs that are driven

by modulations of high-level cognitive states. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the BrainGain Smart Mix Programme of the Netherlands Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. The first

author was supported by a UTS grant from the University of Twente. We thank Paul Gaalman for his technical support during the experimental setup and development of the real-time fMRI pipeline. We are very grateful to the editors and the anonymous reviewers for their encouraging and constructive comments on our manuscript. Abbreviations aMTG anterior medial temporal gyrus BCI brain–computer interface BOLD blood oxygen level-dependent FFA fusiform face area fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging GLM general linear model MoCo motion-corrected MVA-C cluster-wise Selleckchem PI3K Inhibitor Library multivariate analysis MVA-G GLM-restricted multivariate analysis MVA-T mean timeseries multivariate analysis MVA-W whole-brain multivariate analysis MVPA multivoxel pattern analysis OFA occipital face area PACE prospective acquisition correction TR repetition time

Fig. S1. A basis set of 15 face-place pairs used in decoding phase. Each pair was used twice in each condition, once with the face picture set as target and the other time with the place picture set as target. Note: Copyrighted pictures used in the original experiment have been replaced in the above graphic by their non-copyrighted look-alikes. Fig. S2. Graph-based visual saliency algorithm was used to select the face-place pairs. Saliency of the 50/50 hybrid and each of its constituents were fantofarone observed and only those pairs were selected for which the 50/50 hybrid had an equal number of salient points for the face and place picture. Fig. S3. Stimulus timeline. (A) Example of an attend-face trial in non-feedback condition. (B) Example of an attend-place trial in feedback condition. After cues have been presented, the face-place hybrid image was updated every TR depending on classification result of the preceding TR. Fig. S4. List of all brain regions from which voxels were selected by the MVA-W classifier for training. Only regions that were activated across three or more subjects were used for further analyses. Fig. S5.

95 and 23.75 h respectively, did not differ (t10 = 0.48, P > 0.05), nor did the acrophases (t10 = 1.2, P > 0.05)., which were 24.22 h for KO animals and 23.12 h for WT animals (see Table S2). Over the course of the feeding experiment, the genotypes did not differ in body weight (KO, 28 + 0.19; WT, 28 + 0.19 g; t30 = 0.16, P > 0.05), nor daily food intake (KO, 5.0 + 0.20; WT, 5.1 + 0.18 g; t30 = 0.23, P > 0.05). As can be seen in Fig. 12, both GHSR-KO and WT mice entrained to a 24-h feeling E7080 purchase schedule while in DD. Both genotypes showed periods that were nearly 24 h

(t10 = 1.2, P > 0.05) during the last 10 days of the scheduled feeding period (see Fig. 7 and Table S2). Acrophases occurred shortly before the beginning of the feeding period

in KO animals (KO, 07.51 h) and ≈ 1 h after food availability in WT animals (WT, 09.55 h), but did not differ statistically significantly (t10 = 0.99, P > 0.05; see Fig. 7). Total daily running activity during the RF period in DD (see Fig. 8) showed the opposite effect to that seen in LL, with a main effect of genotype (F1,170 =21.90, P < 0.0001), revealing greater total activity in the WT group, but post hoc tests were not significant. There was a trend for a main effect of day (F16,170 = 1.67, P = 0.058), but no day × genotype interaction for total activity (see Fig. 8, left panel). An analysis of the running-wheel activity in the 4 h immediately before food access also Epacadostat showed greater anticipatory activity in WT animals for a couple of days before KO animals reached the same level. anova revealed a main effect of day (F16,160 = 7.64, P < 0.0001),

no effect of genotype interaction, but a trend for a day × genotype interaction (F16,160 = 6.55, P = 0.088). Post hoc analyses showed a significant difference between Obeticholic Acid research buy WT and KO animals on day 5 of the restricted feeding schedule (see Fig. 8, central panel). A visual inspection of the data suggested that the difference between the two genotypes occurred only within the first week after beginning scheduled feeding, so this analysis was rerun with only the first 7 days. Under these conditions, the interaction between day and genotype achieved significance (F9,90 = 2.11, P = 0.037). A t-test of the first 7 days of activity during the 4-h pre-meal period showed a strong trend towards greater activity in WT animals than in KOs (t12 = 1.6, P = 0.06; see Fig. 8). Figure 9 shows histochemical expression of the LacZ reporter gene on the GHSR promoter, indicating the location of the ghrelin receptor. Staining was seen in hypothalamic outputs of the SCN such as the subparaventricular zone (SPVZ) (Fig. 9A), DMH (Fig. 9E and G), paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN; Fig. 9C and D) and arcuate nucleus (ARC; Fig. 9E and H), while the SCN (Fig. 9A), ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) (Fig. 9E and G) and lateral hypothalamus (LH; Fig. 9E and F) had staining that was discernable but less robust.

, 1998). Hence, it is believed that P. aeruginosa

MVs are important to survive in microbial communities. Meanwhile, a number of bacteria secrete indole into the extracellular milieu. For other bacteria, it would be that these indole functions as inhibitors of PQS to escape predation by P. aeruginosa. To investigate the effect of indole on antimicrobial activities, we evaluated the ability of P. aeruginosa to inhibit the growth of actively dividing cells of the Gram-positive bacterium selleckchem B. subtilis, which is known to be killed by P. aeruginosa (Park et al., 2005). As shown in Fig. 3, while a zone was clear around P. aeruginosa PAO1 on a lawn of B. subtilis cells, ΔpqsH did not kill B. subtilis. This result is consistent with published studies showing that the bactericidal activity is repressed in PQS-defective mutants (Park et al., 2005). The killing activity of PAO1 on the agar including indole was attenuated (Fig. 3), suggesting that indole also repress the killing ability of P. aeruginosa against B. subtilis. To determine whether indole oxidation products also affect MV production,

we tested the effect of oxidole, 4-hydroxyindole (4HI), 5-hydroxyindole (5HI), 6-hydroxyindole (6HI), isatin and indigo (Fig. Ribociclib purchase 1). Oxidole exists in an equilibrium state with 2-hydroxyindole. The growth was not changed significantly with the addition of each molecule (Fig. 4a). 4HI, 5HI, 6HI and isatin inhibited MV production at the same level of indole, oxidole led to a 55% reduction of MVs, and no significant

changes were observed with indigo (Fig. 4b). PQS synthesis was also decreased in the presence of bicyclic compounds, including oxidole, 4HI, 5HI, 6HI and isatin, but not in the presence of indigo (Fig. 4c), suggesting that decreased MV production is caused by inhibition of PQS synthesis. In the same way, the activity of the pqsA promoter was also decreased in the presence of bicyclic compounds (Fig. 4d), indicating that these compounds inhibited PQS-stimulated transcription. Cediranib (AZD2171) In addition, the results of pyocyanin synthesis showed a similar tendency (data not shown). To investigate whether structure is important for repression of MVs and PQS, we tested the effects of other cyclic compounds, such as catechol, naphthalene, naphthalene derivatives, 8-quinolinole and carbazole (Fig. 5a). In the growth curve assay, exogenous 8-quinolinole resulted in slightly decreased growth curve, whereas significant changes were not observed with other compounds (Fig. 5b). Exogenous catechol and carbazole did not inhibit MV production and PQS synthesis, whereas naphthalene led to a 44% reduction in them, and other naphthalene analogs used in this experiment, including 1-naphthol, 2-naphthol, 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene and 1-aminonaphthalene and 8-quinolinol, significantly repressed both (Fig. 5c and d).

ebi.ac.uk). Amino acids shading was performed using BoxShade 3. As phospholipases play

an important role as bacterial virulence factors (Weltzien, 1979; Nishizuka, 1992; Vernon & Bell, 1992), we examined various phospholipase activities in M. hyorhinis. A rapid screening assay for PLC activity using the chromogenic learn more substrate pNP-PC as a water-soluble analog of phosphatidylcholine was first described by Kurioka & Matsuda (1976). The hydrolysis of this compound yields phosphorylcholine and a yellow pNP that can be measured spectroscopically (Kurioka & Matsuda, 1976; Shibata et al., 1995). This assay may serve as a rapid screening assay for PLC activity in mycoplasmas (De Silva & Quinn, 1987) and accordingly was used to show PLC activity in Ureaplasma urealyticum (De Silva & Quinn, 1986), Mycoplasma fermentans, and M. penetrans (Shibata et al., 1995). Indeed, when the release of pNP from pNP-PC was measured with M. hyorhinis cell extracts or membrane preparations, we detected a pronounced increase in absorbance owing to

the yellow color formed by the hydrolysis of pNP-PC. The hydrolysis of pNP-PC was affected by divalent cations, mainly by Mn+2 (20 mM), resulting in a fourfold increase in activity (Fig. 1). As expected, the activity was inhibited by EDTA (20 mM, data not shown). Attempts to support the assumption that the hydrolysis of pNP-PC represents PLC activity were made by following the formation of diglycerides in reaction mixtures containing M. hyorhinis lysates or membrane preparations with radiolabeled PG or with PC labeled by fluorescent NBD linked with

position 2 (C12-NBD-PC). Dasatinib manufacturer The reactions were carried out for extended periods of time (0–4 h) with or without divalent cations (10 mM) at 37 °C. The reaction mixtures were extracted and analyzed by TLC. The results did not show any accumulation of diglycerides (data not shown). Furthermore, as the genome of M. hyorhinis (strain MCLD) has been recently fully sequenced and annotated (Kornspan et al., 2011), the genome was analyzed in silico for PLC. We failed to identify PLC but revealed the presence of a PLC-like GPD (GenBank accession Tau-protein kinase no. AEC45694.1). Little is known about the role of GPD in the biology and pathophysiology of mycoplasmas. In M. pneumoniae, the glycerol-3-phosphate formed by an active GPD (GlpQ, GenBank accession no. NP_110108.1, Schmidl et al., 2011) is oxidized by glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase, resulting in the formation of hydrogen peroxide, the major virulence factor responsible for the cytotoxicity of this organism (Schmidl et al., 2011). Furthermore, it was suggested that the GPD of M. pneumoniae acts as a trigger enzyme that measures the availability of its product glycerol-3-phosphate and uses this information to differentially control gene expression (Schmidl et al., 2011). Our analysis of the M.